William D. Wells, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, 317-363. beliefs and interests. 345-355). In the restricted range, in respect to individuals, characteristic perceptual styles, also known as cognitive styles, and response styles, as well as complex response styles have been discerned (Emphasis added, 1967, p. 203). By defining lifestyle as overt behavior, lifestyle emerges as the characteristic behavioral consequence of the ongoing reconciliation of individual motivations and cognitive style with environmental constraints and opportunities, within the limits of enabling condition operating over time. Providing more than simple data reports of psychographic and demographic trends, The Retail Coach [email protected] | THERETAILCOACH.NET | AUSTIN, TEXAS TUPELO, MISSISSIPPI 4 DESCRIPTION DATA % Population 2025 Projection 54,679 2020 Estimate 50,086 2010 Census 39,627 2000 Census 26,792 Growth 2020 - 2025 9.17% Ansbacher, Heinz L. (1967), "Life Style: A Historical and Systematic Review," Journal of Individual Psychology, 23, 191-212. Psychographics is nothing new. By 1839, Waterloo would adopt the name Austin and the frontier town would become the capital of the Republic of Texas. The median age in Austin is 5% lower than Texas. Conversely, the logical focus of lifestyle research may be described as the identification of characteristic patterns of overt behavior that may or may not be systematically linked to cognitive style. 200-201). Market segments are definable in terms of individuals whose expected reactions are similar to similar marketing strategy (Kotler 1980, pp. Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association. Accordingly either psychographic or lifestyle research may focus upon individuals, groups, or society as the unit of analysis depending upon the researcher's purposes. The result of sequential segmentation should be more accurate assessment of market potential and more efficient targeting of marketing strategy. A logical and consistent implication of the above definition of lifestyle is that the domain of psychographic research by delimited in terms of cognitive style (cognitive processes or properties, including values, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, interests), that may be systematically linked to characteristic patterns of overt behavior. Consequently, in interpreting lifestyle to include both characteristic patterns of overt behavior and cognitive processes and properties, contemporary definitions of lifestyle frequently lead to operationalizations that are internally inconsistent. For example, according to contemporary definitions, two consumers would be classed as exhibiting a similar lifestyle if, and only if, they are characterized by both parallel patterns of overt behavior and congruent cognitive styles. And, starting with Dichter's innovative studies of consumers' motivations (1963), students of the consumer's mind have tried to apply the concepts and methods of clinical psychology to virtually every aspect of marketing. Rainwater, Coleman and Handel (1959) underscored the importance of interpreting shopping and consumption behavior in their broader lifestyle context. 226, University of Illinois at Urbana. OPERATIONALIZATIONS OF LIFESTYLE IN MARKETING. It details the logical symmetry and complimentarity between lifestyle and psychographic research, concluding that lifestyle and cognitive style can be usefully employed through sequential segmentation. The analysis and classification of activity or behavioral reports from the consumer which are frequently classified as "psychographics", should be given their own distinct term, such as "lifestyle" (pp. Weber, Max (1947), The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Thus almost accidentally, the lifestyle concept has become operationalized among a certain group of researchers as activity, interest and opinion research conducted for a rather limited set of purposes and employing a rather limited set of techniques (p. 498). Veblen, Thorstein (1899), The Theory of the Leisure Class, New York: MacMillan. Psychographics refers to peoples qualitative characteristics. Beverlee B. Anderson, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 498. Koponen, Arthur (1960), "Personality Characteristics of Purchasers," Journal of Advertising Research, vol. By narrowing the definition of lifestyle to consistencies in overt behavior, marketing management will avoid the trap of too narrowly defining market segments and underestimating market potentials implicit in the conventional definition of lifestyle. This years study continues to show that within the general Best (1980), Consumer Behavior-Implications for Marketing Strategy, Dallas, TX: Business Publications. Still, the terms psychographics and lifestyle remain largely undefined and indistinguishable in the marketing literature. WebLIFESTYLE AND PSYCHOGRAPHICS: A CRITICAL REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATION. In his historical review of the lifestyle concept in the social science literature Ansbacher (1967) noted that the lifestyle concept has been applied in three different uses at three levels of aggregation. 194-196). The suggested relationships are depicted in Figure l. Lifestyle is positioned as behavioral, and cognitive style is positioned as psychological and a subset of psychographic research. Cinnaholic is the original, gourmet cinnamon roll bakery. The paper then contrasts lifestyle and cognitive style conceptually and operationally, underscoring their intuitive, if imperfect, symmetry. Variously called "lifestyle", "psychographic", or "activity and attitude" research, this blend combines the objectivity of the personality inventory with the rich, consumer-oriented, descriptive detail of the qualitative motivation research investigation (p. 196). Over the past half-century the intuitively appealing notion that individuals and groups exhibit idiosyncracies of "style" in living fueled intensifying interest in the lifestyle concept among social satirists and social scientists alike. 125-337. 78712 (512) 471-1128.] Implicit in the foregoing definitional distinctions is the realization that while cognitive style and lifestyle perhaps operate in imperfect symmetry, the domains of psychographic and lifestyle research are logically symmetrical and complementary (Dorny 1971; Loudon and Della Bitta 1979, p. 98). Loudon, David L. and Albert J. Della Bitta (1979), Consume Behavior: Concepts and Applications, New York: McGraw-Hill. W. Thomas Anderson, Jr., University of Texas at Austin Consequently, in interpreting lifestyle to include both characteristic patterns of overt behavior and cognitive processes and properties, contemporary definitions of lifestyle frequently lead to operationalizations that are internally inconsistent. Apply Now. Although the patient is critical, its condition is not terminal. While Dorny's conceptual distinction, too, has apparently fallen on deaf ears, it at least recognizes a potential, if imperfect, symmetry between what he refers to as "mental" processes or properties (the province of psychographic research) and overt activities or behavior (the domain of lifestyle research). In short, the lifestyle concept has become the Rorschach of the social sciences, most particularly of consumer analysis. On the contrary, while simplicity may facilitate clarity and possibly lead to greater consensus concerning the proper domain of lifestyle research, psychographic research remains a viable focus for market analysis insofar as examinations of cognitive processes or dimensions of personality further the cause of understanding, explaining, and predicting overt behavior, and refining market segmentation and marketing strategy formulation. LaPiere's (1934) classic study of racial prejudice in 1934 inaugurated a series of investigations and reviews reporting negative relationships between attitudes and behavior (Festinger 1966). Conspicuous by omission in each instance, however, was a definition of lifestyle. Professor Joe psychographic segmentation purpose of psychographics is to add attitude and behavior to demographics syndicated service vals offers marketers view Yet, it would appear to be symptomatic of scientific pubescence, if not maturity, that the social sciences, and marketing in particular, periodically seek not only synthesis of findings, but also simplicity for the sake of conceptual and operational claritY. Thus, conceptually lifestyle is today generally defined to encompass both characteristic patterns of overt behavior and cognitive processes and properties, including such dimensions of personality as values, attitudes, opinions, and interests. Ultimately Adler came to see stole of life as: the organismic ideas of the individual as an actor rather than a re-actor; the purposiveness, goal-directedness, unity, self-consistency and uniqueness of the individual; andthe ultimately subjective determination of his actions (Ansbacher 1976, p. 191). Tx. 125-337. Felson, Marcus (1975), "A Modern Sociological Approach to the Stratification of Material Life Styles," in Advances in Consumer Research, ed. Wells, William D. (1975,), "Comment on the Meaning of LifeStyle," in Advances in Consumer Research, ed. Advances in Consumer Research Volume 11, 1984 Pages 405-411 LIFESTYLE AND PSYCHOGRAPHICS: A CRITICAL REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATION W. Thomas Anderson, Jr., University of Texas at Austin Linda L. Golden, University of Texas at Austin [W. Thomas Anderson, Jr. and Linda L. Golden are Associate Professors in the Department of Marketing at The University of Texas at Austin. Segmenting first on the basis of parallel patterns of search, shopping and consumption behavior would result in lifestyle segments encompassing all potential prospects for the firm's products. Stephen A. Greyser, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, 164-171. Udel, Jon G. (1965), "Can Attitude Measurement Predict Consumer Behavior? Sequential segmentation on the basis of consistencies in cognitive style will permit the precise targeting of marketing strategy. In Austin 7.56% of the population is Black. Kelley, Eugene J. 1, 21 (September), 6-12. The most telling observation from Exhibit 1, however, is the paucity of published lifestyle literature addressing the three criteria qualifying the usefulness of any social science construct: (1) definitional consensus, (2) operational clarity, and (3) theoretical context. 317-363) attempted to delimit and distinguish the domains of lifestyle from psychographic research. Felson, Marcus (1975), "A Modern Sociological Approach to the Stratification of Material Life Styles," in Advances in Consumer Research, ed. While the term lifestyle has gained popular currency, it continues to defy definitional and operational consensus. LaPiere, R. T. (1934), "Attitudes vs. Katona, George (1960), The Powerful Consumer, New York: McGraw-Hill. Our handcrafted cinnamon rolls and desserts are 100% vegan plant-based, and dairy-free. Yet, as Wells (1975c) concedes: The activity, interest and opinion research, and the term "life style", developed separately. Lifestyle is an integrated system of attitudes, values, opinions and interests as well as overt behavior (p 497). Cognitive style is customarily defined as "one's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and perceiving" (Markin 1974, pp. Psychographics are data that collect and categorize the population by using IAO (interests, activities and opinions) characteristics. 305-347. Analysts continue to conjugate the term lifestyle to fit their own research purposes. Both cognitive style and lifestyle are influenced by enabling conditions, which lie in the context of environmental constraints and opportunities. Clarification and differentiation of conceptual and operational definitions is appropriate to revive lifestyle and refine its usefulness as a segmentation tool. Felson (1975) perhaps best captured the critical, if not terminal, conceptual and operational condition of lifestyle. Engel, James F., Martin R. Warshaw, and Thomas C. Kinnear (1979), Promotional Strategy, Homewood, IL: Irwin. Conversely, another consumer who behaves in the same fashion, yet holds quite different values, attitudes, beliefs, opinions of interests, would be designated as characterized by a contrasting lifestyle. Enquire: +1 512-212-4186. Wells, William D. (19751 ), "Psychographics: A Critical Review," Journal of Marketing Research, 12(May), 196-213. Effective use of sequential segmentation requires clarification and differentiation of terms, consistent with contemporary consumer research findings on the relationship between cognitive processes and properties and overt behavior. Hence, any given lifestyle segment would likely consist of subsegments consisting of consumers with common cognitive processes and properties or cognitive style (see Figure 2). Although quickly adopted as the most widely cited interpretation of the lifestyle concept in. The term "psychographics" [refers to] studies that place comparatively heavy emphasis on generalized personality traits. Reed Moyer, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, 55-62. While (perhaps inadvertently restricting the term lifestyle to "the totality of behavior," Ansbacher concludes that "the broad range of life style includes cognitive style and response style" (Emphasis added, 1967, p. 203). In an unfashionable depiction of the ostentatious style of life (or "scheme of life," in Veblen's words) of the American noveau riche of the latter half of the nineteenth century, Veblen established a fashion of thinking about social, economic, and consumer behavior that has persisted (Mills 1953). Get the most of the growing demand in cybersecurity with UT Austin's program. Beverlee B. Anderson, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 498. FIGURE 2 SEQUENTIAL SEGMENTATION: LIFESTYLE AND COGNITIVE STYLE It is rare in the social sciences to cop a plea for simplicity. Lifestyle research is reminiscent of the parable of the elephant and the blind men of Hindustan. Lazer in 1963 echoed earlier convictions concerning the potential richness and synergistic value of the lifestyle concept for consumer analysis and coined the initial explicit definition of lifestyle appearing in the marketing literature. In Austin 75.86% of the population is White. Yet from the firm's perspective, one important denominator of patronage potential is congruence in overt behavior, irrespective of contrasts in cognitive style. The most telling observation from Exhibit 1, however, is the paucity of published lifestyle literature addressing the three criteria qualifying the usefulness of any social science construct: (1) definitional consensus, (2) operational clarity, and (3) theoretical context. Veblen, Thorstein (1899), The Theory of the Leisure Class, New York: MacMillan. Bell (1958) stressed the symbolic contextual significance of consumption. Writing at the same time, Levy (1963) proposed a contrasting concept of lifestyle, one reminiscent of Adler's conviction that a fictionalized goal or theme pervades one's life providing structure to both self-concept and behavior. 63-94). Psychographic and lifestyle research should proceed hand-in-glove, but progress in both will be facilitated by conceptual and operational precision and distinction. A persistent thread through the marketing literature is the notion that lifestyle involves characteristic patterns of behavior (Andreasen 1967; Bernay 1971; Lazer 1963; Moore 1963; Myers and Gutman 1974). J. Arndt, New York: Allyn and Bacon, 85-100. Berkman and Gilson's (1978) definition is only one of several contemporary interpretations of lifestyle but is representative. In Austin 6.82% of the population is Asian. By narrowing the definition of lifestyle to consistencies in overt behavior, marketing management will avoid the trap of too narrowly defining market segments and underestimating market potentials implicit in the conventional definition of lifestyle. Elsewhere, Wells (1974, pp. This is admittedly narrow as defining lifestyle as overt behavior does not allow for the broad, psychological Adlerian perspective of lifestyle. Analysts continue to conjugate the term lifestyle to fit their own research purposes. J. S. Wright and J. L. Goldstucker. 46-50. Psychographic and lifestyle research should proceed hand-in-glove, but progress in both will be facilitated by conceptual and operational precision and distinction. Compounding the conceptual confusion confounding lifestyle research is a semantic maze eclipsing the terms lifestyle and psychographics that remains unraveled. Lifestyle has been used in reference to: "an individual," "a group, where the members bear a psychological relationship to each other, and which has stability over time," and "a [generic] class or category, where the members have only the property in common on the basis of which they are classified" (Ansbacher 1976, p. 200). Bell, Wendell (1958), "Social Choice, Life Style, and Suburban Residence," in the The Suburban CommunitY, ed. Still, the terms psychographics and lifestyle remain largely undefined and indistinguishable in the marketing literature. Bell, Wendell (1958), "Social Choice, Life Style, and Suburban Residence," in the The Suburban CommunitY, ed. EXHIBIT 1 LIFESTYLE AND PSYCHOGRAPHICS Compounding the conceptual confusion confounding lifestyle research is a semantic maze eclipsing the terms lifestyle and psychographics that remains unraveled. about 1.5 times the amount in Texas: $34,717. Psychographic Consumer Profiling. Two problems emerge: On one hand, the conventional interpretation of lifestyle leads to an unnecessarily narrow definition of market segment boundaries and, hence, to underestimates of market potential. While Adler stressed the uniqueness of each individual, he nonetheless recognized similarities among individuals and their lifestyles (Ansbacher 1976. p. 192), suggesting the existence of lifestyle typologies (Ansbacher 1967, p. 203). Deutscher (1966, p. 135) succinctly summarized the implication: "Disparities between thought and action are the central methodological problem of the social sciences." William M. Dobriner, New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 225-242. 29, #4(October). consumer analysis, Lazer's definition is tautological! 45, #3 (March), 347-355. Stephen A. Greyser, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, 164-171. ed. Analysts who have preferred the term "lifestyle", on the other hand, have tended to focus either on broad cultural trends or on needs and values thought to be closely associated with consumer behavior (p. 319). Bell (1958) stressed the symbolic contextual significance of consumption. Weber, Max (1946), Weber Essays in Sociology, eds. Yet there is mounting evidence to the contrary; indeed, evidence that changes in behavior may trigger changes in cognitive processes and properties, rather than the reverse (Zimbardo and Effesen 1970, Ch. The term psychographic (psycho = mental; graphic = profile) connotes the profiling of psychological processes or properties. (1963), "Symbolism and Life Style," in Toward Scientific Marketing, ed. Implicit in such definitions is the assumption of a systematic symmetry between internallY held attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or interests and overt behavior (Engel, Warshaw and Kinnear 1979, p. 129). THE LIFESTYLE CONCEPT IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES The origins of the lifestyle concept are obscure, but its roots are traceable to the works of poets, naturalists, and philosophers writing as early as the sixteenth century (Ansbacher 1976, p. 196). Much lifestyle research could better be termed "idiosyncracy research", since it uses the computer to group people with similar idiosyncracies (p. 37). 46-50. Restricting the definition of lifestyle to characteristic patterns of overt behavior underscores the intuitive, if imperfect, symmetrical reciprocity between cognitive style and lifestyle. For example, according to contemporary definitions, two consumers would be classed as exhibiting a similar lifestyle if, and only if, they are characterized by both parallel patterns of overt behavior and congruent cognitive styles. The paper then contrasts lifestyle and cognitive style conceptually and operationally, underscoring their intuitive, if imperfect, symmetry. When used in marketing campaigns, psychographics attempts to understand the values and emotions that persuade a potential customer to purchase a certain good or service. It accomplishes this by using data to analyze a consumer's spending habits, passions, ethics and other personal elements that may explain why they make the decisions they do. Beverlee B. Anderson, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research. Lazer in 1963 echoed earlier convictions concerning the potential richness and synergistic value of the lifestyle concept for consumer analysis and coined the initial explicit definition of lifestyle appearing in the marketing literature. Three consumers, two lifestyle segments: Are these three consumers meaningfully different from a marketing or consumer behavior point of view? While (perhaps inadvertently restricting the term lifestyle to "the totality of behavior," Ansbacher concludes that "the broad range of life style includes cognitive style and response style" (Emphasis added, 1967, p. 203). beliefs and interests. A logical and consistent implication of the above definition of lifestyle is that the domain of psychographic research by delimited in terms of cognitive style (cognitive processes or properties, including values, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, interests), that may be systematically linked to characteristic patterns of overt behavior. What few definitions are provided, range from the ridiculous to the sublime, from the tautological (Lazer 1963) to the logically inconsistent (Berkman and Gilson 1978), from the simple (Hawkins, Coney, and rest 1980) to the complex (Levy 1963). Unique and creative aspects: Lifestyle implies anoriginal and idiographic property (1967, p. 205). Effective use of sequential segmentation requires clarification and differentiation of terms, consistent with contemporary consumer research findings on the relationship between cognitive processes and properties and overt behavior. Hence, any given lifestyle segment would likely consist of subsegments consisting of consumers with common cognitive processes and properties or cognitive style (see Figure 2). Lifestyle formed the centerpiece of Adlerian psychology; indeed, Adler wrestled with the concept for forty years. U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Austin city, Texas QuickFacts Austin city, Texas QuickFacts provides statistics for all states and counties, and for cities and towns FIGURE 1 Clearly, this is but another perspective on the potential definition and operationalization of the lifestyle concept. New York: Oxford University Press. The paper (1) documents the internal inconsistency of contemporary definitions and operationalizations of lifestyle, (2) suggests an alternative definition, (3) provides a logical distinction between lifestyle and cognitive style, and (4) stresses the logical distinction between lifestyle and psychographic research. Berkman and Gilson's (1978) definition is only one of several contemporary interpretations of lifestyle but is representative. Lifestyle cannot help one to understand consumer behavior if lifestyle variables are a disorderly, nongeneral, nonhierarchical, or atheoretical set of vaguely related traits whose casual relationships to each other and to anything else are unspecified. One final note: It would be erroneous to construe a plea for simplicity in the interpretation of lifestyle as an indictment of the legitimacy of psychographic research. 345-355). $954. Lifestyle formed the centerpiece of Adlerian psychology; indeed, Adler wrestled with the concept for forty years. Clarification and differentiation of conceptual and operational definitions is appropriate to revive lifestyle and refine its usefulness as a segmentation tool. work from home jobs no experience part time / pharmakeia in hebrew. The primary purpose of this paper is to revive and refine lifestyle as a theoretical and research tool and segmentation variable. Felson (1975) perhaps best captured the critical, if not terminal, conceptual and operational condition of lifestyle. H. H. Gerth and C. W. Mills, New York:: Oxford University Press. Psychographics is a form of market segmentation that groups consumers based on psychological traits that influence their consuming behaviors. Ferber, Robert and L. C. Lee (1974), "The Role of Life Style in Studying Family Behavior," Faculty Working Paper no. More serious, however, is the fact that contemporary definitions of lifestyle may lead to mistaken market segmentation and, hence, mistargeting of marketing strategy. Ansbacher, Heinz L. (1967), "Life Style: A Historical and Systematic Review," Journal of Individual Psychology, 23, 191-212. The term "unified patterns of behavior" refers to behavior in its broadest sense. 16-Weeks. Clearly, this is but another perspective on the potential definition and operationalization of the lifestyle concept. Wilson, Clark C. (1966), "Homemaker Living Patterns and Marketplace Behavior - A Psychometric Approach," in New Ideas for Successful Marketing, eds. Koponen, Arthur (1960), "Personality Characteristics of Purchasers," Journal of Advertising Research, vol. William D. Wells, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, 317-363. Udel, Jon G. (1965), "Can Attitude Measurement Predict Consumer Behavior? Wells, William D. (19751 ), "Psychographics: A Critical Review," Journal of Marketing Research, 12(May), 196-213. Indeed, the search for such systematic links has been much of the motivation behind the intensifying interest in lifestyle and psychographic research in the past two decades. An individual's life-style is a large complex symbol in motion. Yet, while the term lifestyle gained popular currency, it continued to defy conceptual and operational consensus (Ferber and Lee 1974). Rainwater, Coleman and Handel (1959) underscored the importance of interpreting shopping and consumption behavior in their broader lifestyle context. about 90 percent of the amount in the Austin-Round Rock-Georgetown, TX Metro Area: $86,530. (1963), "Discussion," in Toward Scientific Marketing, ed. Sequential segmentation on the basis of consistencies in cognitive style will permit the precise targeting of marketing strategy. Charles W. King and Douglas i. Tigert, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, 200-201. Conversely, another consumer who behaves in the same fashion, yet holds quite different values, attitudes, beliefs, opinions of interests, would be designated as characterized by a contrasting lifestyle. Stephen A. Greyser, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, 140-149. Linda L. Golden, University of Income. Loudon, David L. and Albert J. Della Bitta (1979), Consume Behavior: Concepts and Applications, New York: McGraw-Hill. Yes and no. OPERATIONALIZATIONS OF LIFESTYLE IN MARKETING The diversity of attempts to operationalize lifestyle mirrors the conceptual confusion confounding and impeding lifestyle research (see Exhibit 1). Use of the lifestyle concept as an analytical construct dates from Thorstein Veblen's turn-of-the-century classic The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) and from Max Weber's landmark studies of status (1946, 1947). When used in Moore, David G. (1963), "Life Style in Mobile Suburbia," in Toward Scientific Marketing, ed. The paper (1) documents the internal inconsistency of contemporary definitions and operationalizations of lifestyle, (2) suggests an alternative definition, (3) provides a logical distinction between lifestyle and cognitive style, and (4) stresses the logical distinction between lifestyle and psychographic research. Of particular relevance to the present analysis is Ansbacher's observation that: The concept of style may vary in range from a relatively limited segment to the totality of behavior when it becomes lifestyle. Andreasen, Alan R. (1967), "Leisure, Mobility, and LifeStyle Patterns," in Changing 'Marketing Systems, ed. Markin, Rom J. Jr. (1974), Consumer Behavior: A Cognitive Orientation, New York: MacMillan. You can use psychographics in marketing with the following steps: 1. Axelrod, Joel N. (1968), "Attitude Measurements that Predict Purchases," Journal of Advertising Research, vol. J. S. Wright and J. L. Goldstucker, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, 332-347. Actions," Social Forces, vol. (1966), "Words and Needs: Social Science and Social Policy," Social Problems, vol. The second is harder but more important and those are the psychographics. No approach is sacrosanct, yet some distinction in terms would allow for more productive advancement in lifestyle research and, equally importantly, in lifestyle segmentation. Conversely, the logical focus of lifestyle research may be described as the identification of characteristic patterns of overt behavior that may or may not be systematically linked to cognitive style. The lifestyle concept, partly because of its intuitively appealing and rather obvious relationship to consumer behavior, has received a considerable amount of attention in the marketing literature. consumer analysis, Lazer's definition is tautological! The emphasis Ansbacher ascribes to the unifying property mirrors his conviction that lifestyle bridges cognitive style and response style. 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